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This article is about the modern Republic of India. For other uses, see India (disambiguation).
India (Hindi: भारत Bhārat; see also other names), officially the Republic of India (Hindi: भारतीय गणराज्य Bhāratiya Gaṇarājya), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh largest country by geographical area, the second most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east, India has a coastline of 7,517 kilometers (4,671 mi).Kumar et al. 2006, p. 531 It borders Pakistan to the west;Footnote: The Government of India also considers Afghanistan to be a bordering country. This is because it considers the entire state of Jammu and Kashmir to be a part of India including the portion bordering Afghanistan. A ceasefire sponsored by the United Nations in 1948 froze the positions of Indian and Pakistani held territory. As a consequence, the region bordering Afghanistan is in Pakistan-administered territory. China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Bangladesh and Burma to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka, Maldives, and Indonesia.
Home to the Indus Valley Civilization and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history.Oldenburg, Phillip. 2007. "India: History," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007© 1997-2007 Microsoft Corporation. Four major world religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated here, while Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam arrived in the first millennium CE and shaped the region\'s diverse culture. Gradually annexed by the British East India Company from the early eighteenth century and colonised by the United Kingdom from the mid-nineteenth century, India became a modern nation state in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by widespread nonviolent resistance.
India is the world\'s twelfth largest economy at market exchange rates and the third largest in purchasing power. Economic reforms have transformed it into the second fastest growing large economy; however, it still suffers from high levels of poverty,Poverty estimates for 2004-05, Planning commission, Government of India, March 2007. Accessed: August 25, 2007 illiteracy, malnutrition and environmental degradation. A pluralistic, multilingual, and multiethnic society, India is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats.
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The name India (pronounced /ˈɪndiə/) is derived from Indus, which is derived from the Old Persian word Hindu, from Sanskrit Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the Indus River."India", Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, 2100a.d. Oxford University Press The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi (Ινδοί), the people of the Indus.Basham, A. L. (2000). The Wonder That Was India. South Asia Books. ISBN 0283992573. The Constitution of India and common usage in various Indian languages also recognise Bharat (pronunciation , /bʰɑːrət̪/) as an official name of equal status.Official name of the Union. Courts Informatics Division, National Informatics Centre, Ministry of Comm. and Information Tech. Retrieved on 2007-08-08. “Name and territory of the Union- India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States.” Hindustan (/hin̪d̪ust̪ɑːn/ ), which is the Persian word for “Land of the Hindus” and historically referred to northern India, is also occasionally used as a synonym for all of India.Hindustan. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. (2007). Retrieved on 2007-06-18.
Stone Age rock shelters with paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh are the earliest known traces of human life in India. The first known permanent settlements appeared over 9,000 years ago and gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilization,Introduction to the Ancient Indus Valley. Harappa (1996). Retrieved on 2007-06-18. dating back to 3300 BCE in western India. It was followed by the Vedic period, which laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society, and ended in the 500s BC. From around 550 BCE, many independent kingdoms and republics known as the Mahajanapadas were established across the country.Krishna Reddy (2003). Indian History. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill, p. A107. ISBN 0070483698.
Paintings at the Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, 6th century.
The empire built by the Maurya Empire under Emperor Ashoka united most of South Asia in the third century BCE.Jona Lendering. Maurya dynasty. Retrieved on 2007-06-17. From 180 BCE, a series of invasions from Central Asia followed, including those led by the Indo-Greeks, Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthians and Kushans in the north-western Indian subcontinent. From the third century CE, the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient "India\'s Golden Age."Gupta period has been described as the Golden Age of Indian history. National Informatics Centre (NIC). Retrieved on 2007-10-03.Heitzman, James. (2007). "Gupta Dynasty," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007 Among the notable South Indian empires were the Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas, Pallavas, Pandyas, and Cholas. Science, engineering, art, literature, astronomy, and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings.
Following invasions from Central Asia between the tenth and twelfth centuries, much of north India came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate, and later the Mughal Empire. Mughal emperors gradually expanded their kingdoms to cover large parts of the subcontinent. Nevertheless, several indigenous kingdoms, such as the Vijayanagara Empire, flourished, especially in the south. In the seventeenth and eighteenth century, the Mughal supremacy declined and the Maratha Empire became the dominant power. From the sixteenth century, several European countries, including Portugal, the Netherlands, France, and the United Kingdom, started arriving as traders and later took advantage of the fractious nature of relations between the kingdoms to establish colonies in the country. By 1856, most of India was under the control of the British East India Company.History : Indian Freedom Struggle (1857-1947). National Informatics Centre (NIC). Retrieved on 2007-10-03. “And by 1856, the British conquest and its authority were firmly established.” A year later, a nationwide insurrection of rebelling military units and kingdoms, variously referred to as the First War of Indian Independence or Sepoy Mutiny, seriously challenged British rule but eventually failed. As a consequence, India came under the direct control of the British Crown as a colony of the British Empire.
During the first half of the twentieth century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress and other political organizations. In the 1920s and 1930, a movement led by Mahatma Gandhi, and displaying commitment to ahimsa, or non-violence, millions of protesters engaged in mass campaigns of civil disobedience. (1997) Concise Encyclopedia. Dorling Kindersley Limited, p. 455. ISBN 0-7513-5911-4. Finally, on 15 August, 1947, India gained independence from British rule, but was partitioned, in accordance to wishes of the Muslim League, along the lines of religion to create the Islamic nation state of Pakistan. (1997) Concise Encyclopedia. Dorling Kindersley Limited, p. 322. ISBN 0-7513-5911-4. Three years later, on 26 January, 1950, India became a republic and a new constitution came into effect.CIA Factbook: India. CIA Factbook. Retrieved on 2007-03-10.
Since independence, India has experienced sectarian violence and insurgencies in various parts of the country, but has maintained its unity and democracy. It has unresolved territorial disputes with China, which in 1962 escalated into the brief Sino-Indian War; and with Pakistan, which resulted in wars in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999. India is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations (as part of British India). In 1974, India conducted an underground nuclear test.India Profile. Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI) (2003). Retrieved on 2007-06-20. This was followed by five more tests in 1998, making India a nuclear state. Beginning in 1991, significant economic reformsMontek Singh Ahluwalia (2002). "Economic Reforms in India since 1991: Has Gradualism Worked?" (MS Word). Journal of Economic Perspectives. Retrieved on 2007-06-13. have transformed India into one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, adding to its global and regional clout.India is the second fastest growing economy. Economic Research Service (ERS). United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Retrieved on 2007-08-05.
 National Symbols of IndiaNational Symbols of India. High Commission of India, London. Retrieved on 2007-09-03.
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|---|---|
| Flag | Tricolour |
| Emblem | Sarnath Lion Capital |
| Anthem | Jana Gana Mana |
| Song | Vandē Mātaram |
| Animal | Royal Bengal Tiger |
| Bird | Indian Peafowl |
| Flower | Lotus |
| Tree | Banyan |
| Fruit | Mango |
| Sport | Field hockey |
| Calendar | Saka |
The constitution of India, the longest and most thorough constitution of any independent nation in the world, came into force on January 26, 1950.Pylee, Moolamattom Varkey (2004). "The Longest Constitutional Document", Constitutional Government in India, 2nd edition, S. Chand, 4. ISBN 8121922038. Retrieved on 2007-10-31. The preamble of the constitution defines India as a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic.Dutt, Sagarika (1998). "Identities and the Indian state: An overview". Third World Quarterly 19 (3): 411-434. Retrieved on 2007-10-21. at p. 421 India has a quasi-federal form of governmentWheare, K.C. (1964). Federal Government, 4th edition, Oxford University Press, 28. and a bicameral parliament operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system. It has three branches of governance: the Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary.
The President of India is the official head of stateSharma, Ram (1950). "Cabinet Government in India". Parliamentary Affairs 4 (1): 116-126. Retrieved on 2007-10-21. elected indirectly by an electoral collegeElection of President. The Constitution Of India. Constitution Society. Retrieved on 2007-09-02. “The President shall be elected by the members of an electoral college” for a five-year term.Gledhill, Alan (1964). The Republic of India: The Development of Its Laws and Constitution, 2nd edition, Stevens and Sons, 112. Tenure of President\'s office. The Constitution Of India. Constitution Society. Retrieved on 2007-09-02. “The President shall hold office for a term of five years from the date on which he enters upon his office” The Prime Minister is, however, the de facto head of government and exercises most executive powers. The Prime Minister is appointed by the PresidentAppointment of Prime Minister and Council of Ministers. The Constitution Of India. Constitution Society. Retrieved on 2007-09-02. “The Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President and the other Ministers shall be appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister.” and, by convention, is the candidate supported by the party or political alliance holding the majority of seats in the lower house of Parliament.
The legislature of India is the bicameral Parliament, which consists of the upper house called the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the lower house called the Lok Sabha (House of People).Gledhill, Alan (1964). The Republic of India: The Development of Its Laws and Constitution, 2nd edition, Stevens and Sons, 127. The Rajya Sabha, a permanent body, has up to 250 members serving staggered six year terms.Our Parliament A brief description of the Indian Parliament. www.parliamentofindia.gov.in. Retrieved on 2007-06-16. Most are elected indirectly by the state and territorial legislatures in proportion to the state\'s population. The 543 of the Lok Sabha\'s 545 members are directly elected by popular vote to represent individual constituencies for five year terms. The other two members are nominated by the President from the Anglo-Indian community if, in his opinion, the community is not adequately represented.
The executive branch consists of the President, Vice-President, and the Council of Ministers (the Cabinet being its executive committee) headed by the Prime Minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature, with the Prime Minister and his Council being directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament.Matthew, K.M.. Manorama Yearbook 2003. Malayala Manorama, pg 524. ISBN 8190046187.
India has a unitary three-tier judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India, twenty-one High Courts, and a large number of trial courts.Neuborne, Burt (2003). "The Supreme Court of India". International Journal of Constitutional Law 1 (1): 476-510. Retrieved on 2007-10-21. at p. 478. The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts.Supreme Court of India. Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. National Informatics Centre. Retrieved on 2007-10-21. It is judicially independent, and has the power to declare the law and to strike down union or state laws which contravene the Constitution.Sripati, Vuayashri (1998). "Toward Fifty Years of Constitutionalism and Fundamental Rights in India: Looking Back to See Ahead (1950-2000)". American University International Law Review 14 (2): 413-496. Retrieved on 2007-10-21. at pp. 423-424 The role as the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution is one of the most important functions of the Supreme Court.Pylee, Moolamattom Varkey (2004). "The Union Judiciary: The Supreme Court", Constitutional Government in India, 2nd edition, S. Chand, 314. ISBN 8121922038. Retrieved on 2007-11-02.
The North Block, in New Delhi, houses key government offices.
India is the largest democracy in the world.Country profile: India. BBC (9 January 2007). Retrieved on 2007-03-21.World\'s Largest Democracy to Reach One Billion Persons on Independence Day. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. United Nations: Population Division. Retrieved on 2007-12-06. For most of its democratic history, the federal government has been led by the Indian National Congress (INC). State politics have been dominated by several national parties including the INC, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the Communist Party of India (CPI), and various regional parties. From 1950 to 1990, barring two brief periods, the INC enjoyed a parliamentary majority. The INC was out of power between 1977 and 1980, when the Janata Party won the election owing to public discontent with the "Emergency" declared by the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. In 1989, a Janata Dal-led National Front coalition in alliance with the Left Front coalition won the elections but managed to stay in power for only two years.Bhambhri, Chandra Prakash (1992). Politics in India 1991-92. Shipra Publications, 118, 143. ISBN 978-8185402178.
The years 1996–1998 were a period of turmoil in the federal government with several short-lived alliances holding sway. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996, followed by the United Front coalition. In 1998, the BJP formed the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) with several regional parties and became the first non-Congress government to complete a full five-year term.Patrick Dunleavy, Rekha Diwakar, Christopher Dunleavy. The effective space of party competition. London School of Economics and Political Science. Retrieved on 2007-10-01. In the 2004 Indian elections, the INC won the largest number of Lok Sabha seats and formed a government with a coalition called the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), supported by various left-leaning parties and members opposed to the BJP.Hermann, Kulke; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). A History of India. Routledge, 384. ISBN 978-0415329194.
The Sukhoi-30 MKI is part of the Indian Air Force.
Since its independence in 1947, India has maintained cordial relationships with most nations. It took a leading role in the 1950s by advocating the independence of European colonies in Africa and Asia.Significance of the Contribution of India to the Struggle Against Apartheid1 by M. Moolla India is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement.History of Non Aligned Movement. Retrieved on 2007-08-23. After the Sino-Indian War and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, India\'s relationship with the Soviet Union warmed at the expense of ties with the United States and continued to remain so until the end of the Cold War. India has fought four wars with Pakistan, primarily over Kashmir. India also fought and won an additional war with Pakistan for the liberation of Bangladesh in 1971.
In recent years, India has played an influential role in the ASEAN, SAARC, and the WTO.[citation needed] India is a founding member and long time supporter of the United Nations, with over 55,000 Indian military and police personnel having served in thirty-five UN peace keeping operations deployed across four continents.India and the United Nations. Retrieved on 2006-04-22. Despite criticism and military sanctions, India has consistently refused to sign the CTBT and the NPT, preferring instead to maintain sovereignty over its nuclear program. Recent overtures by the Indian government have strengthened relations with the United States, China, and Pakistan. In the economic sphere, India has close relationships with other developing nations in South America, Asia, and Africa.
India maintains the third largest military force in the world, which consists of the Indian Army, Navy, and Air Force. Auxiliary forces such as the Paramilitary Forces, the Coast Guard, and the Strategic Forces Command also come under the military\'s purview. The President of India is the supreme commander of the Indian armed forces. India became a nuclear power in 1974 after conducting an initial nuclear test, Operation Smiling Buddha. Further underground testing in 1998 led to international military sanctions against India, which were gradually withdrawn after September 2001. India maintains a "no first use" nuclear policyBrig. Vijai K. Nair (Indian Army). No More Ambigiuity: India\'s Nuclear Policy (PDF). Retrieved on 2007-06-07. and has a "strong nuclear non-proliferation record" according to the White House,India\'s Nuclear profile. India Civil Nuclear Cooperation: Responding to Critics. White House: Press Release (March 8, 2006). Retrieved on 2007-10-05. “India has been a peaceful and vibrant democracy with a strong nuclear nonproliferation record” despite not being a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.
India is a federal republic of twenty-eight states and seven Union Territories. All states, the union territory of Puducherry, and the National Capital Territory of Delhi have elected governments. The other five union territories have centrally appointed administrators and hence are under direct rule of the President. In 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act, states were formed on a linguistic basis.States Reorganisation Act, 1956. Constitution of India. Commonwealth Legal Information Institute. Retrieved on 2007-10-31.; See also: Political integration of India
Since then, this structure has remained largely unchanged. Each state or union territory is divided into basic units of government and administration called districts. There are nearly 600 districts in India.Districts of India. Government of India. National Informatics Centre (NIC). Retrieved on 2007-11-25. The districts in turn are further divided into tehsils and eventually into villages.
Administrative divisions of India, including 28 states and 7 union territories.
States:
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Union Territories: |
Major Cities:Cities with Compensatory City Allowance (CCA) classification A-1. See Status of Indian cities for details. "No.2(21)/E.II.(B)/2004". 2006. Ministry of Finance, Department of Expenditure. Government of India. Retrieved on 18 November, 2004 Bangalore • Chennai • Delhi • Hyderabad • Kolkata • Mumbai
India, the major portion of the Indian subcontinent, sits atop the Indian tectonic plate, a minor plate within the Indo-Australian Plate.Ali & Aitchison 2005, pp. 170-171
India\'s defining geological processes commenced seventy-five million years ago, when the Indian subcontinent, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a northeastwards drift—lasting fifty million years—across the then unformed Indian Ocean.Ali & Aitchison 2005, pp. 172-173 The subcontinent\'s subsequent collision with the Eurasian Plate and subduction under it, gave rise to the Himalayas, the planet\'s highest mountains, which now abut India in the north and the north-east. In the former seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast trough, which, having gradually been filled with river-borne sediment,Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 7 now forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain.Prakash et al. 2000, p. 445 To the west of this plain, and cut off from it by the Aravalli Range, lies the Thar Desert.Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 11 The original Indian plate now survives as peninsular India, the oldest and geologically most stable part of India, and extending as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India. These parallel ranges run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east. Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 8 To their south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau, is flanked on the left and right by the coastal ranges, Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats respectively; Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, pp. 9-10 the plateau contains the oldest rock formations in India, some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6°44\' and 35°30\' north latitudeIndia\'s northernmost point is the region of the disputed Siachen Glacier in Jammu and Kashmir; however, the Government of India regards the entire region of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir (including the Northern Areas currently administered by Pakistan) to be its territory, and therefore assigns the longitude 37° 6\' to its northernmost point. and 68°7\' and 97°25\' east longitude.(Government of India 2007, p. 1)
India\'s coast is 7,517 kilometers (4,671 mi) long; of this distance, 5,423 kilometers (3,370 mi) belong to peninsular India, and 2,094 kilometers (1,301 mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep Islands. According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coast consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches, 11% rocky coast including cliffs, and 46% mudflats or marshy coast.
Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal.Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 15 Important tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi, whose extremely low gradient causes disastrous floods every year. Major peninsular rivers whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay of Bengal;Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 16 and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea.Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 17 Among notable coastal features of India are the marshy Rann of Kutch in western India, and the alluvial Sundarbans delta, which India shares with Bangladesh.Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 12 India has two archipelagos: the Lakshadweep, coral atolls off India\'s south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea.Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 13
India\'s climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the monsoons.Chang 1967, pp. 391-394 The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes.Posey 1994, p. 118. The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India\'s rainfall. Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical humid, and montane.Heitzman & Worden 1996, p. 97.
The Royal Bengal tiger, threatened by poachers and smugglers, is India\'s national animal.
India, which lies within the Indomalaya ecozone, displays significant biodiversity. Being one of seventeen megadiverse countries, it is home to 7.6% of all mammalian, 12.6% of all avian, 6.2% of all reptilian, 4.4% of all amphibian, 11.7% of all fish, and 6.0% of all flowering plant species.Dr S.K.Puri. Biodiversity Profile of India (Text Only). Retrieved on 2007-06-20. Many ecoregions, such as the shola forests, exhibit extremely high rates of endemism; overall, 33% of Indian plant species are endemic.Botanical Survey of India. 1983. Flora and Vegetation of India — An Outline. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. p. 24.Valmik Thapar, Land of the Tiger: A Natural History of the Indian Subcontinent, 1997. ISBN 978-0520214705 India\'s forest cover ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and North-East India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the sal-dominated moist deciduous forest of eastern India; the teak-dominated dry deciduous forest of central and southern India; and the babul-dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain.Tritsch, M.E. 2001. Wildlife of India Harper Collins, London. 192 pages. ISBN 0-00-711062-6 Important Indian trees include the medicinal neem, widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies. The pipal fig tree, shown on the seals of Mohenjo-daro, shaded Gautama Buddha as he sought enlightenment.
Many Indian species are descendants of taxa originating in Gondwana, to which India originally belonged. Peninsular India\'s subsequent movement towards, and collision with, the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species. However, volcanism and climatic changes 20 million years ago caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms.K. Praveen Karanth. (2006). Out-of-India Gondwanan origin of some tropical Asian biota Soon thereafter, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes on either side of the emerging Himalaya. Consequently, among Indian species, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are endemic, contrasting with 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians. Notable endemics are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and the brown and carmine Beddome\'s toad of the Western Ghats. India contains 172, or 2.9%, of IUCN-designated threatened species.Groombridge, B. (ed). 1993. The 1994 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. lvi + 286 pp. These include the Asiatic Lion, the Bengal Tiger, and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which suffered a near-extinction from ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle.
In recent decades, human encroachment has posed a threat to India\'s wildlife; in response, the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection ActThe Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Helplinelaw.com (2000). Retrieved on 2007-06-16. and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial habitat; in addition, the Forest Conservation ActThe Forest Conservation Act, 1980. AdvocateKhoj.com (2007). Retrieved on 2007-11-29. was enacted in 1980. Along with more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries, India hosts thirteen biosphere reserves,Biosphere Reserves of India. Retrieved on 2007-06-17. four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; twenty-five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.The List of Wetlands of International Importance (PDF) p. 18. The Secretariat of the Convention of on Wetlands (June 4, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-06-20.
For most of its post-independence history, India adhered to a quasi-socialist approach with strict government control over private sector participation, foreign trade, and foreign direct investment. However, since 1991, India has gradually opened up its markets through economic reforms and reduced government controls on foreign trade and investment. Foreign exchange reserves have risen from US$5.8 billion in March 1991 to US$275 billion in 2007,Weekly Stati
